CANVASES, CARATS AND CURIOSITIES

The City of Paris

Walking down the grand boulevards of the city of Paris, it is difficult to imagine that these iconic rues would have once looked more like the dark, narrow alleyways hidden among urban cities. Considered the ‘Ground Zero’ of modern urban life, Paris has long been a center of art, culture and political thought. From its humble beginnings as a small settlement on the Île de Cité to a major metropolis and the cosmopolitan heart of France, the history of Paris is marked by continuous evolutions over centuries.

Paris’ most significant physical transformation began with Napoleon III, the first President and last Emperor of France, who reigned from 1848 to 1870 and transformed Paris from a medieval city to an unrecognizable modern metropolis with the help of Baron Haussmann. Under Haussmanization, down went the narrow, winding streets of yore as boulevards widened, street lamps arose, and the city became an organized whole.

Emperor Napoleon III's ambitious urban renewal program dramatically reshaped Paris, laying the groundwork for the modern city we know today. Aptly named “the capital of the nineteenth century,” Paris, under Emperor Napoleon III’s modernization, fostered a new bourgeois culture of consumption and commodified leisure in Paris, reshaping the hierarchy of art.

In order to understand how Paris changed so much in appearance at the end of the nineteenth century, it is critical to acknowledge the lengthy period of intense political stability entrenched in the city’s politics. Coming off the backs of the French Revolution, Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte’s defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, and his subsequent exile in 1815, the Bourbon Restoration began.

King Louis XVIII returned to the throne and attempted to balance the traditional monarchy of the past with the revolutionary changes that had swept through France. This uneasy balance was disrupted in 1830 when discontent with the monarchy’s conservatism and economic hardships led to the July Revolution, resulting in King Louis Philippe seizing the throne.

Although King Louis Philippe was known as the ‘Citizen King’ early in his reign, his popularity faded a decade into his rule when he began to prioritize the interests of wealthy industrialists and bankers over the working class of France. The July Monarchy boosted the haute bourgeoisie, or middle class, at the cost of alienating lower-income citizens. By 1847, deteriorating economic conditions culminated in yet another revolution in 1848, which overthrew and exiled the Citizen King.

By 1848, Paris had witnessed two political revolutions, two overthrown kings, and countless economic hardships. A factor in the success of the political revolts was the medieval makeup of Paris. The narrow, dark streets suited barricades, a central tactic to any French revolt. Amidst a revolt, it would be impossible for a Parisian to cross the streets, transforming the city into a labyrinth.

Additionally, the housing was incredibly dense and overcrowded. Diseases spread like wildfire in the squalid living conditions of the working class, where cramped space made the city prone to outbreaks. The lack of proper infrastructure, including adequate sewage systems and clean water, exacerbated these health hazards. In the nighttime, the city was engulfed by darkness due to the absence of lighting. Everyday life was a struggle for most Parisians, and in the evenings, danger lurked behind every corner, especially for women.

The Revolution of 1848 set the stage for the significant changes that would soon be implemented under Emperor Napoleon III and his urban planner, Georges-Eugène Haussmann. These transformations would not only address the dire living conditions but also redefine Paris as a modern metropolis.

Emperor Napoleon III was born Charles-Louis Napoléon Bonaparte in 1808, the son of the King of Holland (r. 1806-1810) and the great-nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. Known originally as Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, he came to power in 1848 through a combination of political ambition and popular support.

After the fall of his great-uncle, the Bonaparte family was forced into exile, and Louis Napoleon grew up plotting his return. During the monarchy’s failures of the Bourbon Restoration and the growing discontent with the Citizen King, the legacy of the Bonaparte’s became more alluring among French people who missed the dominance and stability of Emperor Napoleon’s reign. Thus, when the Revolution of 1848 occurred, and the Citizen King fell, Louis Napoleon leveraged his family’s legacy and the promise of prosperity to achieve the election of President of the Republic in December 1848.

As the leader of the Second Republic, Louis Napoleon had trouble letting go of the power that he worked so tirelessly for all his life. Thus, in 1851, facing constitutional limits on re-election, he staged a coup d’état that dissolved the National Assembly and declared himself the Emperor the following year. His rule, known as the Second Empire, marked a period of significant political, social, and economic transformation for France, with the dramatic reshaping of Paris being one of his most enduring legacies.

Emperor Napoleon III had a grand vision of Paris, aiming to transform it into a grand, modern capital that would stand as a testament to the country’s cultural dominance and his ultimate power as leader of the French. Rather than have the Paris of yore, with its dark and dingy streets and discombobulated neighborhoods, he envisioned wide boulevards, majestic public buildings, and expansive public spaces that would awe Parisians and visitors alike.

With a sharp vision of the future, the Emperor relied on other European cities for inspiration. London’s extensive park system and efficient sewer system highlighted the importance of functionality in modern urban planning. Vienna, on the other hand, with its wide boulevards and open spaces, emphasized the aesthetics of a city. Both cities provided Napoleon III with a blueprint for his own ambitious plans.

Beyond the aesthetic and symbolic goals, Napoleon III keenly understood the importance of considering the social and political implications of such a plan. The overcrowded and unsanitary conditions of pre-Haummanization Paris were contributing to social unrest and public health crises.

By modernizing the city’s infrastructure, Napoleon III aimed to improve the living conditions of the working class, who consistently felt unheard by the central government. Additionally, in a self-serving way, Napoleon believed that a consistent road plan and wider streets would reduce the success of worker uprisings and facilitate easier military control during periods of unrest.

In came Baron Haussmann, the talented urban planner tapped by the Emperor to lead the charge of a new Paris. George-Eugènes Haussmann was born on March 27, 1809 in Paris. The grandson of a Napoleonic general, he pursued architecture and a life of civil servitude. Aligning with Napoleon III’s desire for a grand and functional capital, Baron Haussmann created a comprehensive plan that ushered in the modernization of France.

One of the key features of Haussmann’s transformation was the creation of wide boulevards that criss-crossed the city. Many boulevards were anchored to face a public monument, such as those that lead to the Arc de Triomphe like sun rays. These expansive streets improved circulation, allowing more air and sunlight, as well as traffic flow by accommodating the increasing number of horse-drawn carriages.

The boulevards also correctly facilitated military control, making it easier for troops to move quickly and quell revolts, as the Emperor foresaw. Along the boulevards, Haussmann redid the façades of buildings so that each major avenue looked homogenized and uniform, a physical manifestation of stability.

Public parks were another significant aspect of Haussmann’s plans. Parks like the Bois de Vincennes were established to provide Parisians with access to green spaces for leisure and recreation, thus contributing to the overall well-being of everyday citizens. These parks were designed not only for their aesthetic appeal, such as the more manicured Tuileries Garden but also to offer an escape from the densely populated urban environment.

Haussmann established an architectural homogeneity that defined the Parisian cityscape. Along the boulevards, Haussmann redid the façades of buildings so that each major avenue looked uniform, a physical manifestation of stability. The harmonious façades, intricate wrought-iron balconies, and aligned roofline ushered in a novel, aesthetically pleasing viewing experience. The Hôtel de Ville, or City Hall, was reconstructed in the late nineteenth century using a mixture of classic 16th-century French architecture and the standardized Haussmann style. This building epitomized the grandeur and elegance of the new Paris. Lampposts were also instituted on sidewalks across the city, ushering in a new era of light.

Haussmannization also focused on modernizing the city’s transportation infrastructure. Coming off the backs of the Industrial Revolution, new train stations like the Gare du Nord and the Gare de l’Est were built within the center of the city to improve connectivity within Paris and to other parts of France and Europe. These train stations reinforced Paris’s role as a central hub of commerce and travel among the wider network of European railways, a position it continues to hold today.

For some Impressionist artists, the stations became a favored landscape composition. Gustave Caillebotte’s street views replicated the Haussmannian aspects of urban life, with train stations serving as the background, whereas Claude Monet showed the locomotives as the star subject. For other modern painters, the growth and industrialization of Paris caused them to retreat to more bucolic settings using the train station.

In The Paver of the Chailly Road, Fontainebleau (c. 1830-35), Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot showcases a man placing paving stones on a path in the Forest of Fontainebleau. Corot symbolizes the novel access to nature afforded by the expanded railway system that allowed for easier travel to pastoral areas.

An important aspect of making the city more maneuverable was its legislative division. For Napoleon III, this meant revamping the arrondissement organization, the administrative districts of the city.

During the French Revolution, Paris was initially divided into 12 arrondissements, numbered from west to east, with the Seine River serving as the dividing line between the Right Bank (districts 1-9) and the Left Bank (districts 10-12). Napoleon III created 8 new arrondissements, bringing the total to 20. He also introduced a new numbering system that followed a clockwise spiral starting from the city center. This organization remained largely unchanged until 2020 when the four central arrondissements merged into "Paris Centre" for administrative purposes.

It is important to note that the complete reconstruction of Paris’ façades and streets, plus newly built structures, came at a high cost. Haussmann had little regard for working-class neighborhoods, and he destroyed lower-income housing to make room for his urban planning. This pushed poorer citizens outside of the center of Paris, increasing the socio-economic segregation of the city. In total, 325,000 people were displaced by Haussmannization.

Haussmannization was also broadly hated by Parisians, and Baron Haussmann was nicknamed ‘the Destroyer’ for the breadth of destruction that occurred across the metropolitan area. The Île de Cité, which housed some of the city’s oldest buildings and was renowned for its tight-knit community, was largely razed to make room for administrative buildings. In the eyes of Parisians, the inclusion of governmental buildings represented an oppressive gesture of emboldening the Second Empire. The project also cost around 2.5 billion francs, which is about 7.5 billion euros today.

Emperor Napoleon III lost dominion over France in 1870 after a crushing defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. Although the Second Empire may have ended, Napoleon III and Baron Haussmann’s transformation of Paris continue to leave an unforgettable mark on the city. Their sweeping changes not only turned Paris into a global symbol of modernity but also ushered in a novel priority of considering aesthetics in city design. The newfound magnificence of Paris’ streets and buildings influenced modern art movements, such as Impressionism.

The wide boulevards, expansive parks, and uniform Haussmanian architecture created a modern cityscape that turned Paris into a premier tourist destination renowned for its grandiose charm. Key tourist attractions such as the Louvre Museum and the Arc de Triomphe further solidified the city’s status as a global culture hub.

The Arc de Triomphe, standing majestically at the end of the Avenue de Champs-Élysées, established long before the Eiffel Tower, became an iconic symbol of French national pride and a popular tourist landmark. These attractions, along with the numerous other cultural and historical sites in Paris, continue to draw millions of visitors each year, contributing significantly to the city’s economy and international prestige.

The impact of Napoleon III's transformation extended far beyond the borders of France. Haussmann's innovative urban planning principles influenced city development worldwide, such as the plans of Frenchman Jean L'Enfant, who led the United States' Washington D.C. urban planning. The legacy of their work is evident in the enduring appeal and influence of Paris as a model for urban beauty, inspiring cities around the world to emulate its success.