Our recent virtual exhibition, The Art of the Samurai, was met with resounding success. In response to this enthusiasm, we are pleased to present an expanded version of the exhibition. This extended edition offers a wealth of previously unreleased insights and anecdotes, enriching the compelling narrative of the all-alu samurai.
The Art of the Samurai
After almost a century and a half of near-constant civil war and political upheaval, Japan unified in 1603 under a new ruling family, the Tokugawa. This 250-year regime brought economic growth, prolonged peace and widespread enjoyment of art and culture. The ones who enjoyed this proliferation of riches and art the most were the samurai, the ruling warrior class of this prosperous period.
The Art of the Samurai will explore how the guardians of this historic era expressed their status and creativity through magnificent and functional works of art. From silken suits of armor to elaborate ceremonies with precious wares, the world of the samurai continues to captivate audiences still today. Join us as we enter this exclusive and enigmatic world.
The Regime Begins:
The Edo period in Japan, spanning from 1603 to 1867, marked the culmination of traditional Japanese governance, culture and societal structure. Under the rule of the Tokugawa shoguns, notably Tokugawa Ieyasu, Japan experienced a prolonged period of peace and prosperity lasting 250 years. Ieyasu's victory at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 solidified his power and led to his appointment as shogun by the emperor in 1603. He established his government in Edo, known today as Tokyo.
Central to Ieyasu's rule was the redistribution of land among the feudal lords or daimyo, strategically strengthening loyal vassals. This strategy imposed financial and political obligations, such as regular attendance in Edo, to moderate their power. During this period, there was also a consolidation of military power, with daimyo transforming their domains into concentrated military organizations centered around imposing castles with standing samurai fighters. The transition of samurai from rural to urban lifestyles with minimized military engagements created a pivotal shift in the samurai class' status and culture.
Who were the samurai?
In the modern era, samurai is often used interchangeably with bushi, the traditional name for soldiers and warriors, but historically there was a distinct difference. Anyone could become a soldier, but one had to be born into the ruling class of the samurai, an esteemed lineage directly under the emperor.
Samurai Armor and Weaponry:
During the peaceful Edo period, samurai armor evolved primarily for ceremonial rather than practical purposes. With ample time and materials available, artisans and samurai turned to the timeless designs of the medieval period for inspiration while employing contemporary techniques. The suits produced during the Edo period remain some of the most beautiful and ornate examples of samurai armor ever created.
Typically constructed from black-lacquered iron plates bound together, the armor provided flexibility for ease of movement. Components like the arm coverings combined protective chain mail with delicate silk, while the metal face mask, known as mempō, featured intimidating designs intended to instill fear in adversaries.
While the designs of Edo-period armor reflected archaic origins, the modern emergence of gunpowder weapons rendered metal armor obsolete for widespread use. However, their ceremonial purpose and symbolic power ensured the continued production of elaborate armor, and samurai continued to wear armor, with lighter options favored for personal protection.
Tosei gusoku, or modern armor, is a renowned armor style from the Edo period that exemplifies adaptability and style. Crafted for both battle and formal occasions, this remarkable example features large metal plates and more flexible materials, reflecting innovation while maintaining tradition. This evolution of samurai armor not only provided protection but also expressed the warrior's identity and societal role, embodying the synthesis of function, form and cultural significance.
Below is an exceptional example of an Edo-period samurai suit of armor.
| Edo Period Samurai Suit of Armor. Circa 18th century. M.S. Rau |
The helmet is a five panel steel zunari kabuto, featuring turn backs (fukigaeshi), a peak (mabisashi) trimmed with gilded copper and stenciled doe skin showcasing the Asano clan’s crossed hawk feather heraldry.
The neck guard (manju shikoro) is made from five black lacquered iron lames, complementing the mythically-inspired russet iron mask (tengu men).
The signed mask (tengu men) has a finely patinated exterior and a red lacquered interior, intensifying its fearsome visage. It features the image of a tengu men, which are tree sprites and ruthless woodland protectors.
The breastplate (dō) is made of five-plate russet iron, ornately mounted with scrolled gilded copper and featuring an embossed demon’s face with silver and shakudo eyes and gilded fangs.
The skirt (kusazuri) comprises seven divisions, each with five lames of lacquered molded leather (nerikawa).
The shoulder guards (sode) include six lames of lacquered iron, aesthetically matching the russet iron and adorned with the Asano clan markings.
The armored sleeves (tsutsu gote) are made of russet iron and decorated to reflect the Asano clan.
The thigh guards (haidate) and shin guards (tsutsu suneate) feature a roof tile (kawara) design with green tops (kikko tateage), aesthetically aligned with the cuirasse.
Symbolic Swords:
The samurai, renowned for their martial prowess and social status, were distinguished by their exclusive right to carry two swords, symbolizing their elevated position in society. During the Edo period, the katana and wakizashi formed the iconic pair worn by samurai, embodying honor and strength.
The katana, revered for its seemingly supernatural powers, held deep symbolic significance beyond its function as a weapon, representing the samurai's spiritual connection to their code of conduct. Attached to their attire by a sash belt and sageo cord, samurai wielded their swords with precision and grace. Additionally, the tanto, a short sword or dagger, served as a backup weapon for samurai and a complement to their primary armaments.
Weapons for a Longer Reach:
While the katana held a prominent place in samurai culture, other weapons were also integral to their arsenal. Archery, embodied by the yumi bow, was an essential skill for samurai, honed over centuries to near perfection by the 17th century. Additionally, the attempted Mongol invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281 played a significant role in changing Japanese weaponry and warfare. The Mongols employed footmen armed with long pikes, which necessitated the adaptation of Japanese warfare tactics.
Long curved-bladed pole weapons such as naginata and spears known as yari proved to be more effective than swords due to their longer reach, lighter weight and piercing ability, especially against cavalry and densely packed formations like those employed by the Mongols. Spear fighting techniques demonstrated samurai proficiency in close combat and strategic maneuvering, embody the ethos of sōjutsu, a Japanese martial art meaning the "art of the spear."
The yari, believed to have originated from the hoko yari influenced by Chinese spears, were likely first used in the Nara period (710–794). Although the term yari first appeared in written records in 1334, it didn't gain popularity until the late 15th century. Initially, warfare among the bushi was ritualized and primarily involved horseback archery. However, battles on foot became more common in the late Heian period, with the naginata, yumi and yari becoming prominent weapons.
The naginata emerged as the iconic weapon of the onna-musha, or female bushi, who fought alongside male samurai. This versatile weapon, also favored by warrior monks and commoners, offered advantages such as longer reach and the ability to create space on the battlefield.
Recent archaeological findings from various battle sites in Japan revealed up to 30% of the battle corpses were women. In the 16th century, combat units exclusively composed of women emerged. Ikeda Sen, a female samurai, commanded 200 women musketeers in the battles of Shizugatake and Komaki-Nagakute. Among the most renowned and respected female bushi were Tomoe Gozen and Hangaku Gozen, figures frequently depicted in literature and artwork.
| Hangakujo, Taiso Yoshitoshi. Circa 19th century. Source. This woodcut depicts a woman warrior with a bow and arrows. |
The Spirit of Bushido
Philosophical Foundations:Bushido, originating as early as the eighth century and enduring to modern times, served as the code of conduct for Japan's warrior class, governing their attitudes, behaviors and way of life. Derived from the Japanese words bushi meaning "warrior" and do meaning "path" or "way," bushido translates directly to the "way of the warrior."
The concept of bushido emerged in feudal Japan, particularly during the time of Minamoto no Yoritomo, the founder and the first shogun of the Kamakura shogunate of Japan in the 12th century, marking the beginning of the samurai class's prominence. Before the formalization of bushido, there were earlier codes of conduct, such as the Way of the Man-At-Arms and the Way of the Bow and Arrows, which were prevalent in the 10th and 11th centuries. However, its moral dimensions gradually became apparent in warrior culture and literature from the 14th and 15th centuries onwards.
It was during the Edo period that bushido became solidified with the formal codifying of bushido by scholar Yamaga Soko in the late 17th century. Within the rigid hierarchical structure of Japanese society, the samurai emerged as the highest-ranking social caste under daimyo and constituted the aristocratic military class and bushido was their way of life.
Practices of Bushido:
Bushido places paramount importance on loyalty to one's lord and honor above personal considerations. Rooted in a blend of Buddhist and Confucian ideals, bushido consists of eight virtues: Rectitude or Justice, Courage, Benevolence or Mercy, Politeness, Honesty and Sincerity, Honor, Loyalty, and Character and Self-Control. These virtues encompass traits such as moral integrity, bravery, compassion, courtesy, honesty, dignity, loyalty and self-discipline. They were valued among samurai and emphasized the importance of ethical conduct, respect and personal development.
Zen Buddhism, which rose in popularity through the Kamakura and Muromachi periods, played a pivotal role in shaping the philosophical underpinnings of bushido, emphasizing inner enlightenment and self-discipline. As Zen's influence grew, so too did the appreciation for Japanese arts, such as flower arranging, which became integral components of samurai culture.
Honor held significant prominence within the code, emphasizing principles of integrity and dignity. One aspect that has particularly captured Western attention is ritual suicide, known as seppuku. This practice showcased the samurai's steadfast dedication to their values, as they considered it an honorable alternative to facing defeat.
With the decline of active military clans in the peaceful Edo period, samurai, led by their bushido code, transitioned into roles as political advisors and teachers within their communities, wielding their influence not only on the battlefield but also in matters of governance and ethics.
Social Expectations:
The way of the warrior involved incorporating various disciplines into the samurai’s daily routines alongside martial training including Zen meditation, painting, flower arranging, the tea ceremony, music, poetry and literature. By engaging in these activities, samurai sought to refine not only their martial skills but also their spiritual, aesthetic and intellectual dimensions, contributing to the development of a well-rounded warrior ethos.
The concept of bunbu ryodo exemplifies the harmonious integration of intellectual pursuits with martial training, emphasizing the importance of being both a scholar and a warrior. The term combines four kanji characters: 文 (bun), 武 (bu), 両 (ryo), and 道 (do).
Bun signifies arts and sciences. Bu denotes military or martial arts. Ryo means both and do translates to path or road. Thus, bunbu ryodo signifies excellence in both education and martial arts, embodying a well-rounded mastery of cultural and military studies. This ethos paved the way for samurai to proliferate these tenants of culture throughout their communities through personal practice and teaching.
Literature and Calligraphy:
Literature and calligraphy served as vehicles for expressing the spiritual and ethical dimensions of samurai life. Through famous samurai writings and poetry, illuminated manuscripts and intricately crafted calligraphic artworks, the profound values of bushido found eloquent expression. These literary and artistic pursuits not only enriched the lives of samurai but also served as repositories of wisdom and cultural heritage for future generations.
Sons of wealthy samurai families were introduced to these arts from the age of ten or younger, instilling a sense of discipline and reverence for the written word. Rising at dawn, they, alongside their peers, dedicated their mornings to the meticulous study of calligraphy, sacred texts and histories.
Within the refined pursuits of the way of tea, flower arrangement, incense appreciation and calligraphy, samurai found avenues for expression and contemplation beyond the battlefield. Despite their renowned prowess as skilled warriors, the samurai were also adept artists, musicians and poets.
While martial training remained a cornerstone of their daily lives, samurai no longer needed to spend time preparing for the toils of war as they had before the Edo period. The warrior class suddenly had time to delved into cultural pursuits to refine their intellect and aesthetic sensibilities in their day to day life.
Originating during the Kamakura period, yatate, or portable writing sets were initially devised for samurai warriors to carry their writing tools conveniently. The set included a small grinding stone set in the bottom of their arrow quiver, known as yatate no suzuri, allowing them to make ink on the go. The concept evolved to incorporate a piece of saturated cotton or silk, eliminating the need for constant ink preparation.
| Japanese Meiji Lacquer Writing Set. Circa 1890. M.S. Rau |
This Meiji period yatate, comprises a low writing table, an ink stone or suzuri and water dropper or mizusashi on a compact or silk-covered saturation pad, along with five metal implements. Elaborate lacquer decoration adorns the larger items, all housed within a finely crafted wooden box inscribed with Japanese characters and secured with a ribbon handle.
Japanese writing is esteemed as an art form, relying on the "four treasures": the ink stick, ink stone, calligraphy brush or fude and rice paper or hanshi. The spiritual and meditative nature of writing is reflected in the traditional ink preparation process, with the ink stone symbolizing the continuous link in the writing journey.
| Japanese Meiji Lacquer Writing Set. Circa 1890. M.S. Rau |
The rise of literacy in Edo Japan was significantly influenced by the role of samurai as educators. During the Edo period, han denoted daimyo estates, acting as administrative units alongside provinces. Han schools, educational institutions within these domains, taught samurai etiquette, Confucian texts, calligraphy, martial arts and sometimes medicine and sciences. They evolved from small setups to expansive campuses, with their numbers growing from a few dozen in the early 17th century to over 250 by the late 19th century.
At these schools the samurai class became instrumental in spreading knowledge and literary arts. These academies, predominantly staffed by samurai and supplemented by Buddhist and Shinto clergymen well-versed in Neo-Confucianism, served as hubs of learning.
While rural education was more limited, samurai involvement in disseminating literacy contributed significantly to the overall rise in literacy rates. Estimates suggest that in the Edo period, up to a third of men and a sixth of women were literate. In 1800, almost all samurai and roughly 50% to 60% of craftsmen, merchants and peasants were literate.
Of the literary arts, poetry, in particular, held a significant place in samurai culture, serving as a medium for introspection, expression and even competition. Samurai poetry contests, often enjoyed by scholars and commoners alike, showcased the succinct yet evocative nature of forms like haiku, which resonated with its simplicity and universality.
Natsu kusa ya / Tsuwamono domo ga / Yume no ato
The summer grasses.
All that remains
Of warriors’ dreams.
Matsuo Bashō, Summer Grass
Another tradition called jisei, or death poem, involves composing a poem at the time of one's death, reflecting on the impermanent and transitory nature of life. This tradition is unique to East Asian culture and is closely associated with Buddhism, particularly Zen Buddhism in Japan. Through these poems, individuals contemplate the essence of existence and the inevitability of death, aligning with Buddhist teachings on impermanence and the transient nature of life. These poems would be transcribed before great battles or during illness.
Tabi ni yande / yume wa kareno wo/ kakemeguru
Sick on my journey,
my dreams go wandering
on this withered field
Matsuo Bashō, Death Haiku
| Japanese Lacquer Box. Circa 1870. M.S. Rau. |
This lacquer box features emblems representing the four esteemed classes of Edo society: samurai and warriors, farmers, craftsmen and merchants. Each class is symbolized through intricately rendered designs, including a bow on a stand for the warriors, a basket of leaves for the farmers, calligraphy tools for the craftsmen and a set of scales and abacus for the merchants. Beautifully crafted boxes such as these could be used to store calligraphy materials or writings.
In the pursuit of another literary art, calligraphy, samurai found not only a means of artistic expression but also a reflection of their martial ethos. Like the precision required in combat, the stroke of the brush demanded focus, discipline and unwavering commitment. A single mistake in either endeavor could prove costly, whether in the permanence of ink on parchment or the unforgiving arena of battle. Thus, the mastery of calligraphy, alongside martial prowess and other artistic endeavors, contributed to the esteemed societal status of the samurai, showcasing their holistic pursuit of perfection in both mind and body.
Daily Life and the Home
The Tea Ceremony:
| Meiji Japan Silver Tea and Coffee Service by Sanju Saku. Circa 1900. Sold at M.S. Rau. |
The tea ceremony was a grounding practice with its emphasis on calmness of mind and serenity of temper, essential for battle training. The samurai philosophies state that being a successful warrior was only possible through a grounded and centered interior life. In the disciplined observance of tea etiquette, the samurai found a reflection of their own bushido characterized by honor, respect and harmony. This practice was not merely a cultural tradition but a path to enlightenment, where the simplest of gestures held the power to elevate the soul.
In the Edo period, participation in these ceremony became crucial to a daimyo's social standing. Samurai lords held tea gatherings for official and private receptions, not merely a matter of social convention but a reflection of their nuanced roles as warriors and patrons of the refined arts. Central to this refinement was the tea ceremony, a ritual that transcended mere beverage consumption to become a conduit for spiritual introspection and social harmony.
The Japanese chadō tea ceremony, also known as sadō or chanoyu, is one of the most popular tea ceremonies globally. It exclusively features matcha powder of the highest quality known as "ceremonial grade." During chadō, the host prepares the tea for their guests. Despite its simplicity, mastering the movements of a chadō ceremony requires years of practice, akin to mastering ballet. There is also a less formal senchado tea ceremony, dedicated to the drinking of sencha, a type of Japanese green tea.
| Meiji Period Japanese Silver Censer. Circa 1900. M.S. Rau |
This intricate Meiji period silver censer is a work of exquisite detail. Holding great spiritual import, this vessel was used to burn incense for tea ceremonies.
Tea ceremonies with samurai served as occasions for diplomacy, where alliances were forged and relationships nurtured amidst the delicate aroma of powdered green tea. Within the serene confines of the tea room, known as the sukiya, samurai lords conducted themselves with grace and precision that mirrored their skill on the battlefield.
The ethos of the tea ceremony, as elucidated by Kakuzō Okakura in The Book of Tea, resonated deeply with the samurai spirit.
“But when we consider how small after all the cup of human enjoyment is, how soon overflowed with tears, how easily drained to the dregs in our quenchless thirst for infinity, we shall not blame ourselves for making so much of the tea-cup.”
-Kakuzō Okakura, The Book of Tea
The symbolism imbued within every aspect of the ceremony is the impetus of the practice. From the humble simplicity of the sukiya to the meticulous arrangement of utensils, each element held profound meaning. The roji, or entrance pathway to the tea house, became a metaphorical bridge between the chaos of the outside world and the serenity within, a concept familiar to warriors accustomed to navigating the dichotomy of peace and conflict.
Japanese tea rooms have a notably low entrance door. Before stepping inside, guests are expected to clean their hands. Passing through this low doorway requires all guests to bow, regardless of their social standing.
| Cha no yu nichinichisō by Mizuno Toshikata. Circa 1896. The host hands a lacquered tray containing a bowl of food to each guest, from the series A Tea Ceremony. Source. |
Within the austere confines of the tea room, the samurai found solace in the ritualized movements and quietude of the ceremony. The emptiness of the space, punctuated only by temporary adornments, encouraged a state of mindfulness that mirrored the focused clarity required in battle.
| Japanese Silver Rabbit Hand Warmer. Circa 1890-1900. M.S. Rau |
Meiji-era hand warmers such as this example from M.S. Rau were used in the important tea ceremonies of samurai and nobles. By adding a mixture of sand, fragrant wood chips and heated charcoals to the vessel’s interior, one could warm their hands in the intimate spaces of tea rooms.
Lacquerware:
| Japanese Lacquer Tray With Cards. Circa late 19th century. M.S. Rau |
Lacquerware, a hallmark of Japanese craftsmanship, was essential to a tea ceremony. Visually striking and durable, the art of lacquerware embodies centuries of tradition, meticulous artistry and the samurai virtue of patience. Originating from the sap of the Japanese lacquer tree, known scientifically as Toxicodendron vernicifluum, lacquerware is renowned for its exquisite beauty, durability and versatility. Its history traces back to ancient times when it was utilized both as an adhesive and a protective coating, with archaeological evidence dating back over 9,000 years. The earliest known lacquerware artifacts date back to a burial site from 7000 B.C.E.
Crafted with a blend of skill and reverence, lacquerware encompasses a wide array of everyday items such as bowls, trays and meal boxes, as well as intricate decorative works including tea utensils and ornamental boxes. Lacquerware possesses remarkable hardness, luster and durability, and is resistant to water, salt and mild acids. Additionally, it offers antibacterial qualities, a lightweight build, outstanding thermal insulation capabilities and is even insect resistant.
The production of lacquerware is intricate and deeply rooted in tradition, requiring patience, precision and a profound respect for nature. The journey begins with the careful extraction of lacquer sap from the lacquer tree, a labor-intensive process that yields only a small quantity of resin per tree. A single mature lacquer tree may produce less than half a cup of lacquer each season and then may not be tapped again for a few years.
Once harvested, the raw lacquer undergoes a meticulous application process overseen by skilled artisans known as nushi or lacquerers. Raw lacquer can cause skin irritation as the tree from which it is harvested is related to poison oak. Lacquer artists must expose themselves to the leaves little by little to build immunity to the poison.
The process begins with a wooden core known as a kasjishi, which is meticulously sanded until translucent, and then dried for up to seven years to ensure the core will not warp. The then the nushi painstakingly applies layer upon layer of lacquer, up to thirty coats or more. Each coat, applied thinly and methodically, must dry completely before the next application. If the lacquer is applied too thick, the surface will dry but leave a liquid pocket underneath, leaving the piece ruined.
| Japanese Lacquer Tray. Circa 1900. M.S. Rau |
The drying process is more accurately described as curing through a chemical reaction. Raw lacquer contains an enzyme called lacase, which acts as a catalyst for oxidation. This reaction occurs most effectively in humid air, ideally around 80% humidity. In dry conditions, the lacquer will not dry properly. Artisans use a furrow, a tightly sealed drying cabinet that can be dampened to maintain the proper humidity.
After each coat is dried, the lacquerware is polished by hand to achieve a flawless finish, a testament to the artisan's dedication to perfection. Here are some of the unique techniques within this incredible art form:
- Maki-e - a design that is created with fine metal powder that is sprinkled onto wet, sticky lacquer, dried and then sealed with clear lacquer
- Shin nuri – smooth black shiny surface. Many layers of lacquer are applied, sanded and smoothed to achieve this effect.
- Tsumakure – Red accents on lacquered items. Literally means “red fingernails.”
- Hira Maki-e -Maki-e designs that are flat
| Comb box, wedding item of Yo-hime, daughter of 11th Tokugawa Shogun Ienari married to Maeda Nariyasu. Circa 19th century. Shinise Kinenkan Museum in the Nagamachi district, Kanazawa, Japan. Source. |
Taka Maki-e - Reliefs employing this Maki-e process in which sections are built up in three dimension
| Exhibit in the George Walter Vincent Smith Art Museum, Springfield, Massachusetts, USA. Source. |
Togidashi Maki-e: Maki-e designs that are polished with black lacquer in between which is then polished off to reveal the pattern underneath
| Cosmetic box (tebako). Circa 1800. Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, Montreal, Canada. Source. |
Raden - Mother of pearl inlay
| Box with Design of Bellflower and Bush Clover, style of Ogata Korin, Circa 19th century. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Source. |
Daily Life of the Samurai
A typical day for a samurai would commence with meditation, setting the tone for spiritual and mental preparation. Breakfast would follow, often consisting of a nourishing meal comprising steamed rice, miso soup, eggs, tofu and fish.
| Pair Of Meiji Period Bronze Birds On Driftwood Base. Circa 1890. M.S. Rau. |
Many samurai were members of the aristocracy in the Edo period and could afford the finest art and decorations for their homes such as these bronze birds which helped to bring nature poetically within the home.
| Traditional style Samurai home. Usuki, Ōita. Built in the Edo period. Source. |
Many samurai households feature gardens, often serving as hubs for entertainment and seasonal gatherings which vary in size depending on the status of the samurai. The samurai may choose to meditate outdoors in this garden.
| The garden at the Nomura samurai house and museum in Kanazawa's Nagamachi samurai district. Circa 16th century. Source. |
Household Heiracry:
Ashigaru, the lower rank of samurai foot soldiers, frequently resided in long rows of tenement housing known as nagaya, which translates to "longhouses."
Gôshi were samurai who resided in rural areas instead of castle towns and farmed land. Gôshi could also include peasants or commoners granted privileges similar to samurai, such as the right to bear swords, audience with the lord or the use of a family name in official documents, without being formally inducted into the samurai class.
Many samurai held positions within their communities, serving their daimyo in various capacities. This might involve acting as bodyguards for their lords, safeguarding their domains or overseeing the collection of taxes from the inhabitants. Some samurai found employment as educators, imparting knowledge and skills to the next generation.
Samurai actively participated in local cultural events, attending ceremonies and parades adorned in elaborate ceremonial armor.
| Japanese Lacquered Kushi Hair Comb. Meiji Period. M.S. Rau. |
Japanese kanzashi, or hair ornament, this hair comb features elegant gold kanagai and nashiji lacquer work. The accessories came into prominent use during the Edo period, when hairstyles became more complex and ornamental. Today, these kushi are used only for traditional Japanese ceremonies, such as Shinto weddings and by maiko, or geisha apprentices.
Worldly Encounters:
The Tokaido, a famed pedestrian highway spanning around 320 miles along Japan's eastern coast links Edo to the former capital Kyoto. The passage gained significance in the Edo period when the shogun mandated daimyo's regular travel to Edo. Shogun Iemitsu's policy of Sankin Kotai or Alternate Attendance, required daimyo to reside in Edo every other year, leaving their families in Edo as hostages year round with numerous samurai retainers as bodyguards. This policy diminished the daimyo's authority by depleting their finances with the burden of maintaining dual residences and funding extensive travel, while also constraining their capacity to raise armies. This centralized political power and led to striking processions of feudal lords, escorted by samurai, to and from Edo throughout the year.
Foreign Samurai: The Remarkable Story of Yasuke:
Foreigners, including non-Japanese individuals, were also able to attain the esteemed title of samurai. One notable example is Yasuke, believed to be the only person of African descent to reach such a rank. Arriving in Japan in 1579 as a bodyguard to Alessandro Valignano, who was inspecting Jesuit missions in the Indies, Yasuke's impressive height and unique appearance earned him celebrity-like status in Japan.
Oda Nobunaga, a powerful lord, was intrigued by Yasuke and invited him for a meeting. Nobunaga accepted him into his service, granting him the honor of being his sword-bearer. Yasuke fought alongside Nobunaga in multiple battles, his existence documented in various historical accounts. Despite largely being forgotten over the centuries, Yasuke's remarkable story resurfaced in modern times through literature, depicting him as a heroic figure in Japanese historical fiction novels.
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Cleaning of a Samurai house for New Year's festivities by Kitagawa Utamaro. Circa 1798-1800. Source.
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Global Impact
During the Edo period, Japan practiced isolationism, avoiding trade with the Western world. However, in 1853, American Commodore Matthew Perry entered Tokyo Bay with a squadron of U.S. Navy ships, seeking to establish regular trade and discourse with Japan after over two centuries of isolation.
Perry's arrival was backed by advanced firepower as well as gifts to impress Japanese authorities. His persuasive approach convinced Japan to accept his letter outlining demands. Subsequently, in 1854, Japan reluctantly signed the Treaty of Kanagawa, granting access to two ports and allowing American consuls to reside in Japan.
This treaty, while not a commercial agreement, paved the way for future trade and contact between Japan and the West. The opening of Japan to the West had a profound impact, influencing not only art movements like Impressionism and Post-Impressionism but also transforming Western decorative arts with the influx of Japanese goods.
| Japanese Hand-Hammered Silver Bowl by Tiffany & Co. Circa 1880. Sold at M.S. Rau. |
Introduced in 1871, this Tiffany & Co. pattern was designed by the renowned Edward C. Moore, who was highly influenced by the Japanese Revival style sweeping the decorative arts of the age. While Tiffany’s more traditional patterns followed the established Rococo styles in England and France, this groundbreaking pattern showcases naturalistic imagery including birds, cherry blossoms, bamboo, dragonflies and other Asian motifs.
Scholars have argued that Impressionism and Post-Impressionism might never have emerged at all had Perry not sailed into Edo Bay. The influx of Japanese art and artifacts suddenly made available to the Western markets profoundly impacted Western artists. Notable figures like Edgar Degas, Vincent van Gogh and Mary Cassat were inspired by Japanese ukiyo-e woodblock prints, while Western decorative arts saw a transformation with the introduction of Japanese porcelain, swords and intricate ivory carvings. Vincent van Gogh owned a large number of Japanese prints which he used as inspiration.
| Comparison of a woodblock print by Hiroshige (left) to its copy painted by van Gogh.Left, The Residence with Plum Trees at Kameido by Utagawa Hiroshige. Circa 1857. Right, Japonaiserie, Flowering Plum Tree (after Hiroshige) by Vincent van Gogh. Circa 1887. Source. |
| La Course à l’abîme by Georges de Feure. Circa 1893-94. Sold at M.S. Rau. |
Another artist inspired by Japanese art, especially woodcuts, Georges de Feure’s name was inextricably linked with the avant-garde currents of Symbolism and Art Nouveau, the color lithographic revolution in printmaking, the Poster Movement and Japonism.
The influence of samurai culture on contemporary media is undeniable, particularly in Western cinema. Western movies have often reimagined the samurai motif in a Western context, evident in classics like Sergio Leone's A Fistful of Dollars and Walter Hill's Last Man Standing, both adaptations of Kurosawa's Yojimbo. Even George Lucas found inspiration in Japanese storytelling, with The Hidden Fortress by Akira Kurosawa influencing his creation of Star Wars.
FX's recent adaptation of James Clavell's novel, Shōgun, has garnered widespread praise and impressive ratings. Serving as a reboot of the 1980 miniseries, this rendition has fueled American interest in samurai culture. Unlike the earlier portrayal that often marginalized Japanese characters in favor of the Western protagonist, this reboot offers a refreshing perspective by allowing Japanese characters and practices to shine. Through authentic depictions of samurai armor and adherence to the code of bushido, the series offers viewers a nuanced and immersive glimpse into the rich tapestry of Japanese history and tradition.
| Henry Dunay Gold Sabi Necklace. M.S. Rau |
The influence of Japanese design on modern jewelry is diverse, encompassing elements of minimalism, nature, craftsmanship and cultural symbolism. Drawing from Japan's rich artistic heritage, contemporary jewelry makers worldwide embrace simplicity, clean lines, and understated elegance in their designs. Motifs inspired by nature, such as cherry blossoms and waves, reflect the country's reverence for the natural world, while meticulous craftsmanship techniques like mokume-gane, the layering different-colored metals and shakudo, a from of wire inlay, add depth and detail to modern designs.
Drawing inspiration from Japanese culture, this modern necklace crafted by renowned goldsmith and jewelry designer Henry Dunay showcases a highly textural basketweave design. Made entirely of 18K yellow gold, the necklace incorporates Dunay's distinctive scratched surface technique, referred to as "Sabi." This technique pays homage to the Japanese concept of "Wabi-Sabi," celebrating the beauty found in imperfection and impermanence. Echoing the simplicity and precision valued in Japanese aesthetics, Dunay's creation exudes a timeless beauty.
Modern Japanese Art
| Dragon in Clouds—Red Mutation: The version I painted myself in annoyance after Professor Nobuo Tsuji told me, “Why don’t you paint something yourself for once?” by Takashi Murakami. Circa 2010. Source. |
Many contemporary Japanese artists are deeply rooted in the rich tapestry of art and style of their culture. The scale of this red dragon by Takashi Murakami is awe-inspiring, spanning 56 feet horizontally and standing 11 feet tall, yet it was painted in a mere day and a half. This commitment to one's craft harkens back to the meditative traditions of the samurai in their pursuits of painting and calligraphy. Murakami's "Superflat" style blends classical Japanese techniques with Pop, anime and the otaku culture of video games and anime. His work Dragon in Clouds pays homage to Soga Shōhaku's original work, Dragon and Clouds from 1763.
| Dragon and Clouds by Soga Shōhaku. Circa 1763. Ink on paper. Source. |
Renowned for his avant-garde approach merging Japanese techniques with European subjects, Tsuguharu Foujita emerged as a trailblazing figure in early 20th-century Japanese modernism. Portrait of a Mother and Child showcases Foujita's mastery during a pivotal period in his career following his conversion to Christianity. Immersed in the vibrant circles of Montparnasse, Paris, Foujita's artistry flourished alongside luminaries like Picasso and Matisse. His unique blend of ukiyo-e techniques and European influences led to iconic portraits, including his celebrated renditions of the Virgin and Child.
| Portrait Of A Mother And Child by Tsuguharu Foujita. Circa 1957. M.S. Rau |
This particular work reflects the artist's reverence for Renaissance masters and contemporaries like Modigliani, portraying maternal love with exquisite detail and emotive brushwork. Foujita's distinctive style, characterized by bold ink strokes and iridescent glazes, captures the timeless beauty and intimacy of the mother-child bond.
Tradition Continues:
The legacy of the samurai continues to reverberate through time, shaping not only Japan's historical narrative but also influencing contemporary culture worldwide. From their unwavering commitment to honor and duty to their mastery of martial arts and code of conduct, the samurai epitomized the ideals of courage, loyalty and discipline.
Through their art, literature, and enduring presence in popular media, the samurai serve as a symbol of resilience and valor, inspiring generations to embrace the path of righteousness and strive for excellence in all endeavors. As we reflect on their rich history and timeless values, let us honor the spirit of the samurai and carry forward their noble legacy into the future.
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