King Henry VIII commissioned lavish courtly displays to affirm his divine authority. The king commissioned a portrait from Hans Holbein the Younger to demonstrate his newly acquired omnipotence shortly after the Supremacy Act. In the painting, King Henry stands upright in ornate traditional-style royal attire. Though he is not painted holding the conventional signs of royalty (crown and scepter), his downward glance at the viewer and aggressive posture reflect his imposing command.

His large codpiece, a stiff garment to cover a man’s fly, is front and center in a presentation of masculinity. King Henry VIII knew the propagandistic potential of portraiture, and he encouraged others to make copies of the Holbein and spread his image. Though the original painting was lost in a fire in 1698, many copies remain today.  

Across the channel, Francis I (r. 1515-1547) was crafting a different, yet equally powerful, image of kingship that was rooted in cultural sophistication and Renaissance grandeur. An avid follower of the Renaissance, Francis I ushered in the expansion of the printing press, commissioned marble statuary and brought Italian Renaissance painters to the French court. Leonardo da Vinci, under the patronage of the king, made France his home in the final years of his life. 

Most notably, Francis I supported the creation of the School of Fontainebleau, a decorative arts program based at his Château of Fontainebleau. Led by Florentine artists, the School of Fontainebleau chartered Northern Mannerism, a highly stylized movement that emphasized elongated forms, ornate decoration and sensual, allegorical imagery to glorify courtly life.

The Medici Family and Florentine Artistic Influence

The School of Fontainbleau’s fusion of Italian elegance and royal ambition made its way to Florence, where the Medici family mastered the craft of consolidating influence through cultural patronage. The incredibly powerful banking family lobbed commission after commission at Renaissance artists, funding the movement that completely redefined artistic expression. Lorenzo de Medici commissioned artists like Michelangelo, Sandro Botticelli and Leonardo da Vinci to create works that reflected humanism’s ideals of harmony, beauty and symmetry.

Their patronage was not solely defined by decorating their estates, as they also supported large-scale sculptural and architectural works in public spaces that blur the lines between private luxury and civic grandeur. The architect behind the Duomo, Filippo Brunelleschi, could not have built the iconic structure without Medici support. Even walking through the streets of Florence today, one can see the lasting impact of the Medici family; from the Uffizi Gallery to Perseus with the Head of Medusa by Benvenuto Cellini, which symbolized the Medici family's role as the saviors of Florence.

Through such lavish displays that blur the lines between public service and personal aggrandizement, monarchs (and, on occasion, high-class wealthy families) shaped their image as divinely chosen and culturally dominant. This approach draws inspiration from classical antiquity's tradition of monumental public art, laying the groundwork for centuries of royal pageantry to come.

The Baroque Era: Louis XIV and the Birth of Absolute Style (1643-1715)

When King Louis XIV declared “L’état, c’est moi” (“I am the state”), he reflected his dominance in both political power and style. During his reign, control over the arts became an essential expression of absolutism, a form of governance where the monarch held complete and unchecked power. Nowhere did the Sun King make this more evident than at Versailles, the palace he transformed into the heart of the regime, with the help of artists like André-Charles Boulle and Charles Le Brun. Through the use of state-sponsored workshops and tightly controlled aesthetics, Louis XIV defined the Baroque era’s visual language and cemented France as a cultural epicenter.

When King Louis XIV ascended the throne in 1643, Versailles was little more than a hunting lodge built by his father, Louis XIII, twenty years prior. At the start of his reign, Paris was the political heart of France, including the royal residences and government institutions. However, as Louis aged and embraced the vision of an absolute monarchy, he made a calculated decision to move his court and government away from the hubbub of Paris to Versailles. 

The strategic decision came after a series of volatile unrest in Paris, known as the Fronde, with aristocrats jostling for influence over the king. By shifting the center of France to Versailles, Louis XIV could control the aristocracy more effectively, as nobles’ status became increasingly dependent on their geographical proximity to the king. To reflect this new age of political control, with rigid social rituals and a carefully orchestrated court hierarchy, Louis employed an elaborate design schema with the help of many artisans. 

Between 1668 and 1670, Versailles turned into a full-scale royal residence. The radiating floor plan and grand axis of the gardens reinforced Louis XIV’s position as the center of the political universe. The Hall of Mirrors is in the center of it all, overlooking the gardens on an east-west axis, following the rising and setting of the sun (aptly done with the king’s nickname in mind).

This gallery, with its dazzling light and endless reflections, pays tribute to the political and cultural successes of France. Courtiers and visitors would have passed through the gallery daily; nowhere is the ostentatious display of diplomatic theater more clearly mirroring the absolute power of the French king.

To decorate all the newly built rooms, Louis XIV established a network of royal workshops that used the world's most precious natural materials to elevate French decorative arts to new heights. His then modern style, now known as Baroque, was defined by its drama, ornamentation and theatricality. For Versailles, artists like Charles Le Brun, who served as Louis’s chief decorator and court painter, helped unify this visual style across architecture, painting and interior design.

The Manufacture Royale des Gobelins, among other workshops, was purchased on behalf of King Louis XIV in 1662 by Jean-Baptiste Colbert, one of his chief ministers. This workshop was tasked with producing tapestries, furniture and upholstery under the supervision of Le Brun to ensure they adhered to the court-sanctioned style. After 1697, Gobelins only manufactured tapestries for royal use, as it was the finest of the tapestry workshops. 

Among the most celebrated artisans of Louis’s court was André-Charles Boulle, a cabinetmaker whose name became shorthand for a technique that fused exotic materials— ebony, tortoiseshell, brass and mother-of-pearl— into intricate marquetry. He also led a large workshop in the Louvre to fulfill the countless number of royal and aristocratic commissions. His furniture pieces were both decorative marvels and political statements, displaying technical mastery and the wealth of the king’s patronage. The codification of these different workshops ensured that every visual element—whether carved, woven or gilded—reflected the grandeur and discipline of the monarchy. In doing so, France emerged as the stylistic model for monarchies across Europe.

Rococo: The Feminine Revolution under Madame de Pompadour (1715-1774)

Just like all trends, even the grandeur of Versailles could not hold forever. Following Louis XIV’s death, the stylistic tides shifted from awe and authority into intimacy, elegance and aristocratic leisure. When Louis XV (r. 1715-1774) ascended the throne, a new kind of courtly taste emerged that was lighter and driven by the influence of women. Chief among those influences was the king’s favorite mistress, Madame du Pompadour.

Born into a family of common weavers, Madame du Pompadour (Jeanne Antoinette Poisson) seemingly achieved the impossible when she became King Louis XV’s chief mistress, a position she held between 1745 and 1751. The king doted on Madame du Pompadour, gifting her the marquisate of Pompadour and raising her position to duchess in 1752. The queen, too, considered her a confidante, as she became the queen’s lady-in-waiting in 1756, the highest possible rank for a woman at court. 

Her ascendancy to nobility was a result of her shrewd understanding of needing to continuously remain in favor with the king and queen. Her patronage of prominent artists and adoption of an entirely new style of art helped her keep the attention of Louis, whilst simultaneously strengthening her public image. Her influence extended well beyond the king’s affection, as she became a tastemaker for the entire French court.

Madame du Pompadour championed the arts of refinement, including tapestry, painting and porcelain. She sponsored the construction— and later bought outright— a porcelain factory at Sèvres, which became one of the most respected porcelain manufacturers across Europe. Under her wing, court aesthetics transitioned from Louis XIV’s performative masculinity into the graceful intimacy known as Rococo.

Here’s the quick rundown on Rococo, so you’ll be able to identify a Rococo piece at a glance:

• Asymmetry and Organic Motifs: Rococo embraced curves, scrolls and whimsical natural forms like shells, vines and flowers. Mimicking the unpredictable beauty of nature, this style was all about movement and lightness.
• Pastel Palettes: Pale blues, blush pinks, creams and vivid greens characterized the palette of any Rococo artist. The interiors were airy and inviting, designed to flatter.
• Furniture that Moves (Literally): Compared to Baroque, Rococo furniture was smaller, curvier and built for comfort. Lightweight chairs, writing desks and side tables were easy to rearrange for conversations and games in intimate salons. Madame du Pompadour’s avid salon attendance as a young married woman and love for conversation undoubtedly influenced this change.
• Flirty Art: Paintings often portrayed romantic pastoral scenes, mythological love stories and playful eroticism. Artists like François Boucher— one of Madame’s favorites— and Jean-Honoré Fragonard did not shy away from stolen glances or Cupid’s arrow.

The 19th Century: Victorian Eclecticism and Industrial Innovation

A little less than a hundred years after Madame du Pompadour, another female tastemaker emerged in England. In an era of sweeping industrial, economic and political change, Queen Victoria (r. 1837-1901) came to define the aesthetics of a rapidly modernizing Britain.

Victoria’s reign, spanning 63 years, coincided with the Industrial Revolution, which fundamentally changed the way that virtually everything was produced and distributed. The emergence of mass production using complex machinery meant that decorative objects, fine furniture and textiles were no longer limited to an elite’s budget. The expanding middle class suddenly had access to the trending designs of the day.

The monarchy’s perception of shaping design also shifted. Rather than dictating taste from above, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert embraced a more public-facing cultural influence that supported innovation and accessibility. The Great Exhibition of 1851, organized by Prince Albert and housed in the Crystal Palace, epitomized that ambition. As the first truly international design fair, industrial inventions, decorative arts and architectural marvels were brought together for the general public to see. From Minton's majolica, early daguerrotypes, to ormolu-mounted decorative arts, the Great Exhibition democratized access to the fine arts.

At the same time, this period saw the rise of eclecticism in different interior design styles. Rather than a singular royal style, the Victorian era mixed Gothic revival, Rococo revival, Egyptian motifs, Japonisme and more into a single space. The sheer variety of available goods allowed individuals to decorate according to personal taste.

One of the Queen’s most striking examples of personal influence on style came through in fashion and mourning culture. Lockets in pendants and bracelets were highly fashionable after Prince Albert gifted the Queen a bracelet with eight lockets, each filled with a lock of hair from their eight children. After he died in 1861, Victoria wore black for the rest of her life as a representation of her grief. This set off a nationwide obsession with mourning attire and black jewelry. Jet, onyx and black enamel pieces became staples of Victorian jewelry design; mourning fashion even made its way to American audiences.

Early 20th Century: Art Deco and the Democratization of Luxury

When Queen Victoria died in 1901, the world looked incredibly different from when she first ascended the throne. Cities were rapidly expanding at the expense of a shrinking rural population and women were declaring more rights. The Industrial Revolution had matured, bringing in a new wealth class tied not to inheritance, but to industry, entertainment and innovation. In the decades that followed, Europe and America would endure the trauma of World War I and the collapse of several monarchies. These seismic social and political changes reshaped design culture entirely.

Power and taste were no longer dictated by royalty alone. Instead, luxury became more modern, more accessible and more global. It was in this new world that Art Deco emerged, an aesthetic born from progress and the desire to celebrate a contemporary kind of glamour without political or philosophical intentions. This is also reflected in the style’s amalgam of many different movements of the early 20th century, including Neoclassical, Constructivism, Cubism, Modernism, Art Nouveau and more.

The new class of wealthy patrons, be it industrialists, creatives or entertainers, eschewed the inherited traditions of yore and focused on both form and function. Art Deco aimed to provide luxury for the modern world with lavish, streamlined designs. Whether decorative arts, furniture or jewelry, Art Deco relied on sleek geometric and futuristic motifs. Bold contrasts were coupled with luxurious materials, such as black and gold, ivory and lacquered red or the marriage of exotic woods and chrome.

Although Art Deco was not popularized by a single person, as was the case previously, a mix of designers, artists and celebrities helped to thrust Art Deco into the mainstream. The 1925 Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes in Paris also helped catapult Art Deco to global prominence. One such exhibiting designer was Jacques Adnet, who became a leader in Art Deco furniture and decorative arts design.

Adnet’s collaboration with Baccart from around 1930 showcases his innovative style. Though he is mainly known for luxurious leather-wrapped furniture, this work embodies Art Deco with its sleek chromed metal structure, mirrored base and geometric faceted glass decanters. The fabulous Baccarat decanters are signed on the underside with the etched Baccarat factory mark, reflecting light brilliantly on the mirrored bases.

Erté, often remembered as the “Father of Art Deco,” was an early trailblazer in the movement with his colorful and elegant paintings. One such example, Balthasar, is a costume design for the 1919 production of Les Rois des Légendes, a performance showcasing kings from throughout history. Balthasar is shown here with a gift of myrrh incense in his hand while costumed in patterns that appear to draw on both Orientalist depictions of North Africa and Erté’s own Art Deco geometries. Erté‘s work reflects how artisans melded non-Western aesthetics with the sharpness and modernity of Art Deco.

The Influence on Mid-Century Modern Design

Though Mid-Century Modern is often seen as a stylistic break from Art Deco, it was more of a quiet evolution. Roughly dated between 1945-1970, MCM carried forward Deco’s embrace of clean geometry and material-forward design, but with a more stripped-down sensibility.

Where Art Deco favored exotic luxury in furniture— think lacquer, ivory and inlaid wood— MCM shifted toward warmer, more organic materials. Designers like Charles and Ray Eames embraced teak, walnut, oak and rosewood, and left a visible grain to highlight the wood’s natural texture. Function-first forms took precedence, as furniture became lighter, legs got longer, and the overall mood shifted to sunny suburban living. This reflected a broader cultural pivot away from Deco’s opulence toward simplicity and utility, especially in postwar domestic life. 

With that said, Mid-Century modern design didn’t abandon all of Deco’s DNA. Designers still celebrated innovation in materials, such as the use of unconventional use of plywood in Eames chairs, and retained a love for bold, experimental silhouettes. The Nautical Gyroscope Cocktail Service perfectly represents this. The set stores all the tools needed to craft a cocktail within the frame, designed to resemble a ship’s steering wheel. Its chromed metal form can be easily set into an upright position or repositioned to serve as a horizontal cocktail serving station.

In the postwar boom, mass production met mass marketing, and design was now ready to enter the modern middle-class home. Companies like Herman Miller and Drexel worked closely with designers to create stylish and affordable furniture, often promoted through sleek advertisements in magazines.

At the same time, the rise of celebrity culture and Hollywood glamour played a major role in shaping public taste. As movie stars became national icons, their homes and interior design became aspirational templates for modern living. Photospreads in lifestyle magazines showcased sleek, open-plan interiors with sculptural furniture, sunken living rooms and glass walls. The idea of “living like a star” fueled the mainstream embrace of MCM aesthetics, and consumerism with a tinge of cultural fantasy grew.

The age-old fascination with how the elite live today continues with magazines like Architectural Digest that feature celebrities’ homes through both print and video. Artistic and interior design trends are cyclical and often reinvent past aesthetics for new audiences, as in the Victorian and Art Deco styles. The rise of shabby chic in the late 20th century drew inspiration from 18th-century French provincial style. The seemingly aged and distressed decor and furniture with curved silhouettes, delicate floral fabrics and pastel-toned palette recall Madame du Pompadour’s beloved Rococo.

Most currently, there is a growing appreciation for reclaimed wood and neutral color palettes— comprised of beige, off-whites and muted earth tones— that project a calm simplicity. Perhaps the aesthetics of today reflect our current desire to find peace amidst the rapidly growing innovation of technology and expansion of the Internet, one that many past aesthetics strove to channel, too.